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NASA Reversals
NASA REVERSALS HINT AT SECRETS

    Analysis of recent NASA press conferences about two Mars missions, along with a live technical broadcast before one of these press conferences, have produced fascinating reversals which raise more questions than they answer.  The reversals do not make sense if you follow the official NASA line.  The reversals, however, do make sense if you assume the account of retired Colonel Philip J. Corso in his 1997 book, The Day After Roswell, is true.

    Brief quotes from the book are given in red type to provide a unique perspective on these NASA reversals.  Colonel Corso,  by his own account, was involved in getting the hardware from the UFO that crashed near Roswell, New Mexico into the hands of private corporations so that The Day After Roswell the technology secrets could be discovered through reverse engineering.  His book also provides some details of  both an ongoing cold and sometimes hot war between humans and aliens.  He describes a secret Russian-American agreement to cooperate in defending the Earth against alien aggression.

    Some reversals below come from NASA press briefings on the Mars Climate Orbiter on September 23, 1999 taped from CNN coverage.  NASA publicly referred to this as a failed or lost mission.  Other reversals come from NASA coverage of the Mars Polar Lander taped from NASA TV on December 5, 1999, including the internal audio of Mission Control which was broadcast for thirty minutes before the press conference started.   There are also some reversals from a follow up press conference on the Mars Polar Lander by NASA on December 7, 1999 taped off of CNN.  NASA has also referred to this as a failed or lost mission although some researchers reported the receipt of a weak signal for a short period which may have been from the Mars Polar Lander.

    Each selection is played forward first.  Then each reversal is played at three progressively slower speeds.  Finally, the speech segment containing the reversal is played and immediately followed by the reversal, all at normal speed.  This site uses Real Audio sound files to save space so you need Real Player 5 or a newer version to hear the reversals.  (If you don't have Real Audio capability, there is a link on my homepage at http://home.pacbell.net/etaoinsh where you can download it free.)  To hear the reversals, click on the file you want to hear which will have a .ra extension.  After Real Player starts up, minimize it at the bottom of your screen so you can follow the text of the quotes as you verify the reversals.  The segment of the forward speech where the reversal occurs is shown in [brackets].  The reversal itself is shown in bold type.  Some reversals are straightforward while others are metaphoric and require interpretation.  Comments are my opinion and may or may not reflect the true thoughts of the speaker.

    I have grouped some of the reversals into common themes to support my theory as to what they mean in light of Colonel Corso's disclosures.  Other reversals are listed by themselves.  If you have an interest in NASA and its missions, you may be able to come up with your own theories and interpretations.  Instead of scrolling down this long page, you can click below to go directly to the following sections:

    NASA use of stealth technology

    Secret US-Russian agreement

    Cold war/hot war with aliens

    Use of primates on Mars missions

    Evidence of NASA hiding secrets from the public

    Miscellaneous reversals


NASA used stealth technology on its Mars Polar Lander mission.

Source:  Mars Polar Lander Mission Control on 12-5-99

"Receivers at both stations, our antennas four three and four five, have still not detected any signal and, uh, we'll continue looking here for the last [uh, ten points]."

    Stealth messed up             messed.ra

Comment:  Stations 43 and 45 are deep space antennas at Canberra, Australia.



Source:  Mars Polar Lander Mission Control on 12-5-99

"And hopefully those times [if they are known by the flight team], both Mars Global Surveyor and Mars Polar Lander, will be discussed during that press conference."

    Need stealth without knowing Earth   stealth.ra


The United States and Russia have a secret agreement to cooperate militarily and in space against any alien threat.

Source:  Colonel Corso

"Of course, the CIA already knew, because two of its intelligence directors had been members of the working group, that UFOs were displaying hostile intentions not only to the United States but to the Soviets, the Italians, and the Scandinavians as well. All of NATO was trying to figure out a response to the UFO threat without triggering a reaction from the Soviets.  That was one of the reasons, thirty years later, President Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev could come to a meeting of the minds about UFOs that ultimately brought an end to the need for a Cold War."  (at pp. 262-263)

"When President Ronald Reagan demonstrated to Mikhail Gorbachev that the United States was capable of deploying an effective antimissile missile defense and sought Soviet cooperation in turning it against the extraterrestrials, all pretext of the Cold War ended and the great Soviet monolith in Eastern Europe began to crumble."  (at pp. 122-123)

"Gorbachev, believe it or not, was also pleased because President Reagan guaranteed that the United States would throw its defensive shield around the Soviet Union, too.  Sure, the two leaders shook hands and embraced one another in public.  What they had achieved together, cooperating when they were supposed to be fighting, was nothing short of miraculous.  Whatever we were fighting over became minimally important in the face of a threat from creatures who were so superior to us in technology that we were their farm animals tobe harvested as they pleased.  But when the United States and USSR agreed, in the early 1980's, not to fight each other over this territory or that territory, to cooperate so as to defeat the common foe, we were unbeatable.  Now, as the Space Shuttle docks with the Mir and the astronauts and cosmonauts share a toast of vodka from their plastic squeeze tubes and look out into the darkest reaches of space, they know that there is an electronic shield around them."  (at pp. 268-269)



Source:  Richard Cook, NASA Mars Project Manager, at Polar Lander press conference on 12-5-99

"[There is one slight] change, um, contrary to what I said this morning."

    Yeltsin knows it             yeltsin.ra

Comment:  If aliens are interfering with our space missions and we have a secret agreement with Russia, it makes sense that the then Russian President, Boris Yeltsin, would be made aware of the progress of the mission.



Source:  Sarah Gavit, NASA team member at Polar Lander press conference on 12-7-99

"The fact that we didn't see- succeed [in flight validating] the technologies is a setback."

    And made alive Yeltsin     yeltsin2.ra

Comment:  Yeltsin was in notoriously bad health in the last year before he resigned.  Any good news about the Mars mission would probably improve his spirits or get his active attention.  (Contrary to NASA claims of failed missions, there were some secret successes, as shown in other reversals below.)



Source:  Chris Jones, NASA team member at Polar Lander press conference on 12-7-99

"... and because the MSR mission requires us to be able to land safely on the surface of Mars, uh, one might expect, [uh, that MSR will be affected by this loss.]"

    Sol say that'd be Cafe Boris admitted that         boris.ra

Comment:  Jones was admitting that the apparent loss of the Polar Lander would affect a future planned Mars mission, MSR, which would also have to land safely.  "Cafe Boris" may be a reference to Boris Yeltsin's space advisors who share the same concern.


There is an active cold war which sometimes escalates to a hot war between us and hostile aliens.

Source:  Colonel Corso

"Hide the truth and the truth becomes your enemy.  Disclose the truth and it becomes your weapon.  We hid the truth and the EBEs used it against us until 1974 when we had our first real shootdown of an alien craft over Ramstein Air Force Base in Germany."  (at p. 268)

"Fears of an attack to probe our planet's ability to defend itself were running rampant at National Security and through the military chiefs of staff during the middle 1950s.  After he retired from army, even Gen. Douglas MacArthur got into the fray, urging the military to prepare itself for what he felt would be the next major war.  He told the New York Times in 1955 that 'The nations of the world will have to unite for the next war will be an interplanetary war.  The nations of the Earth must someday make a common front against attack by people from other planets.'  ... Part of the military response to what they perceived as threats from extraterrestrials was, first, to analyze the specific ways that alien spacecraft 'passively' disrupt our defenses and world wide communications through electrical and magnetic field interference and develop circuitry hardened against it.  Second, General Trudeau and his counterparts in the other branches of the military at the Pentagon charged with strategic planning looked at the aggressive behaviors of the EBEs.  They didn't just shadow or surveil our spacecraft in orbit; they buzzed us and tried to create such havoc with our communications systems that NASA more than once had to rethink astronaut safety in the Mercury and Gemini programs.  Years later, there was even some speculation among Army Intelligence analysts who had been out of the NASA strategy loop that the Apollo moon-landing program was ultimately abandoned because there was no way to protect the astronauts from possible alien threats."  (at p. 126)

"Our only successes in defending against them, back in the late 1950s and early 1960s, occurred when we were able to get a firm tracking radar lock.  Then when we locked our targeting radars on, the signals that missiles were supposed to follow to the target, it somehow interfered with their navigational ability and the vehicle's flight became erratic.  If we were especially fortunate and able to boost the signal before they broke away, we could actually bring them down.  Sometimes we acutally got lucky enough to score a hit with a missile before the UFO could take any evasive action, which an army air defense battalion did with an antiaircraft missile near Ramstein Air Force Base in Germany in May 1974.  The spacecraft managed to crash-land in a valley.  The craft was retrieved and flown back to Nellis Air Force Base in Nevada.  The Roswell crash was different.  There was much speculation that it was a combination of the desert lightning storm and our persistent tracking radars at Alamogordo and the 509th that helped bring down the alien vehicle over the New Mexico desert in 1947."  (at p. 127)

"The way history turned out, it was our lunar expeditions , one after the other throughout the 1960s, that not only caught the world's attention but showed all our enemies that the United States was determined to stake out its territory and defend the moon.  Nobody was looking for an out-and-out war, especially the EBEs who tried to scare us away from the moon and their own base there more times than even I know.  They buzzed our ships, interfered with our communications, and sought to threaten us by their physical presence.  But we continued and persevered."  (at p. 156-157)

"At the same time, the civilian leaders of the nation's space program at NASA decided that military intelligence was overreacting to the shadowing and buzzing  of our spacecraft.  NASA, which had been holding as highly confidential any reports of extraterrestrial activity surrounding our space vehicles, nevertheless decided to adopt an internal official 'wait and watch' attitude because they believed that it would have been impossible to launch an explicitly military defensive space program and still achieve the civilian scientific aims at the same time.  So NASA agreed to go covert.  As a cover, NASA, in 1961, agreed to cooperate with military planners to work a 'second-tier' space program within and covered up by the civilian scientific missions.  They agreed to open up a confidential 'back channel' communications link to military intelligence regarding any hostile activities conducted by the EBEs against our spacecraft even if these included only shadowing or surveillance."  (at p. 128)

"And the army and air force managed to find at least 122 photos taken by astronauts on the moon that showed some evidence of an alien presence.  It was a startling find and was one of many reasons that the Reagan administration pushed so hard for the Space Defense Initiative in 1981."  (at p. 129)

Note- the acronym EBE stands for extraterrestrial biological entity.



Source:  Richard Cook, NASA Mars Project Manager, at Climate Orbiter press conference on 9-23-99

"[What I want to try to do] here is to give you a little bit of the status as to where, [what happened last night], where we are, and what our plans are for, for the immediate future."

    We definitely win 'em  //  now sound the battle     winbattle.ra

Comment:  There was some secret mission or encounter that NASA successfully completed despite any alien threat.  In this sense, the mission was not a failure or loss.



Source:  Richard Cook, NASA Mars Project Manager, at Climate Orbiter press conference on 9-23-99

"[Many of you] know that last night at 2 AM Pacific time we planned to- the Mars Climate Orbiter was planned to, uh, go into orbit around Mars."

    We beat 'em         beatem.ra

Comment:  Once again, the mission was not a failure or loss- at least with respect to its secret military aspect.



Source:  Richard Cook, NASA Mars Project Manager, at Climate Orbiter press conference on 9-23-99

"Given the uncertainty, however, we are con[tinuing to attempt to] uh, uh, [get a signal from the spacecraft]."

    We jus' messed up those aliens  // Fire ships in the fungus city       aliens.ra

Comment:  Although he is a civilian, Mr. Cook shows earthly patriotism and dedication to the secret military aspects of the mission.



Source:  Mars Polar Lander Mission Control at JPL Pasadena before the press conference on 12-5-99

"UHF antenna broadcasts [in a dome above the spacecraft]."

    Fire ships above the mud, damn it            mud.ra

Comment:  It is unclear who this command is being directed to.  Later reversals indicate there may have been a primate passenger on board our spacecraft.



Source:  Mars Polar Lander Mission Control at JPL Pasadena before the press conference on 12-5-99

"[It's the last we heard from the spacecraft, it w]as in space, about to reorient itself for the entry, descent and landing sequence."

    We fired ships and free yourselves             free.ra

Comment:  Was someone trapped?  Later reversals speak about being surrounded and a rescue mission to a city on Mars.



Source:  Richard Cook, NASA Mars Project Manager, at Polar Lander press conference on 12-5-99

"... [to, to investigate the possibility] of a direct to Earth link problem by using the UHF, uh, system in communicating with [the Mars relay] onboard MGS, uh, tomorrow night."

      Be a little bit soft but make it sudden, boost, boost  //  yeah, we're surrounded
                                                                                surrounded.ra

Comment:  MGS refers to the Mars Global Surveyor.  The first reversal may refer to a command to boost the transmitter power in an attempt to establish communication.  Surrounded could refer to more than one thing, e.g. surrounded by aliens or surrounded by rising terrain which interferes with line of sight radio transmission.



Source:  Dan McCleese, NASA Mars Program Manager, at Polar Lander press conference on 12-7-99

"[It isn't necessary that we learn about the South Po][lar region as we had hoped][to do before we] proceed on with the next part of exploration."

    Oh classified, been Earl you, when you rescue send the city  //  boy, do you send a shiver  //
feel awful good         rescue.ra

Comment:  Earl is a reverse speech metaphor referring to someone who has been successful in life or made a great achievement.  Dan McCleese's comments were made just after those of his apparent subordinate, Project Manager Richard Cook, on December 7.  There apparently was a very successful and highly classified rescue mission to a city on Mars that Richard Cook was in charge of.  It was a thriller and sent a shiver down McCleese's spine.  McCleese feels awfully good about the outcome of this secret military aspect of the mission.  Note Cook's reversals above from September 23 about beating the aliens in a battle and messing them up as ships fired in a fungus city.  Contrast these upbeat, excited reversals with the public face of NASA talking about lost missions.  The scientific cover mission may have failed but the secret military mission was a success.  [To see NASA photos of a lake, river, and possible city on Mars, click here.]



Source:  Richard Cook, NASA Mars Project Manager, at Polar Lander press conference on 12-5-99

"[We also, um, sent commands to set up the spacecraft to do][the, the UHF] uh, [communications attempt in safe mode which will take place tomorrow night]."

    We just fire ships but that's its name, miss Ma, we saw you  //  first year we did the  // yeah, an enormous help.  We hope to do 'em piercing it, next does the shaking.  piercing.ra

Comment:  It sounds like an attempt to establish communications was planned for the next night, December 6, 1999 which happened to be a Monday.  If piercing it didn't do the trick, then some shaking manuever would be tried.  Reference to the shaking maneuver as having taken place on Monday was made later by another NASA employee, Sarah Gavit.  See below.



Source:  Sarah Gavit, NASA Mars team member, at Polar Lander press conference on 12-7-99

"[The anomaly investigation] of course will continue."

    Shake suddenly on Monday           shake.ra

Comment:  Gavit made her comment on Tuesday, December 7, 1999.  Monday, when the sudden shaking occurred, was the previous day, December 6, 1999.  This adds further information to what we extracted from Cook's reversals, i.e. when the piercing maneuver (possibly boosting the transmitter power) did not work, the shaking maneuver was tried on December 6.


NASA and the Russians may be using primates as test subjects or limited duty astronauts on missions to Mars.

Source:  Richard Cook, NASA Mars Project Manager, at Polar Lander press conference on 12-5-99

"[In particular, if, for example, the] medium gain antenna failed to deploy, uh, for whatever reason, it would explain everything that we've seen up 'til now."

    The little passenger fit, her little kister fit.            passenger.ra

Comment:  Cook has a later reversal referring to chimps so there may have been a little female chimp on board this mission to Mars.  Kister or keester are slang terms referring to one's buttocks.  I envision a little chimp in a seat molded to fit her body contours.  Both the Russians and the United States have a history of using chimps and other animals on pioneering space efforts when the dangers to man are unknown or deemed too risky.  Coincidentally, a news report appeared in January, 2000 which indicated that researchers working with chimpanzees had been able to train them to recall the location of numbered images on a touch screen.  After the boxes on the screen went blank, the chimps could recall and touch, in correct numerical order, up to five images.  This supposedly was the equivalent of what a five year old child could do.



Source:  Richard Cook, NASA Mars Project Manager, at Polar Lander press conference on 12-5-99

"Now we wanted to go ahead and look at it because, you know, we had some concerns about gyro-compassing and how accurate that that would be [accomplished and so] you know, even though it is, strictly speaking, sort of a double problem, uh, we did- you know, we wanted to look at that one as a high priority."

    Wasn't Chewbaca        chewbaca.ra

Comment:  Fans of the movie Star Wars may recall a large bigfoot type creature, known as a wookie whose name was Chewbaca.  He was Harrison Ford's sidekick, affectionately referred to as Chewy, and could do some tasks on board the spacecraft although he did have a problem controlling his temper.  The little chimp on board the Polar Lander was not as intelligent as the wookie on Star Wars.



Source:  Richard Cook, NASA Mars Project Manager, at Polar Lander press conference on 12-7-99

"You know, who's accountable for what is always a useful thing to do and I think that [in the case of this mission is very clear]."

    Health care was in the chimp's head but was sick in it.          chimps.ra

Comment:  The little passenger may have been healthy when she left Earth but I don't think she could survive the journey unscathed.  There is a belt of high radiation near Mars which I don't think we can totally shield passengers from.  Cook's comment above was made in the context of responding to how he felt about an investigative panel that would attempt to determine what went wrong with the mission.



Source:  Sarah Gavit, NASA Mars team member, at Polar Lander press conference on 12-7-99

"Our team really per[severed and one by one developed] or invented, in many cases, technolo[gies in order to make the mission possible]."

    Beloved, now we outnumber their apes  //  oh, the soft mission, gambled their own decision
                                                              apes.ra

Comment:  "Their apes" probably refers to the primates the Russians have ready for space missions.  "Beloved" may mean that NASA personnel get very emotionally attached to the intelligent creatures they use for space missions.  Note Richard Cook's reversal below.



Source:  Richard Cook, NASA Mars Project Manager, at Polar Lander press conference on 12-5-99

"[Yeah, well we will do all those things]."

    Yes, we'll always love you, we'll wait!   love.ra

Comment:  Cook made this comment just prior to his reversal above about the little passenger's kister fitting.  The quote here was given in response to a reporter's question about why the NASA team was apparently writing off the Mars Polar Lander and not trying other means to communicate with it if the December 6 attempt proved unsuccessful.  Cook was trying to clarify that other means would be used although chances for success would be very small.


Due to the perceived need to keep the American public in the dark as to the alien presence and the military aspects of many missions, NASA will keep things secret, fake things when necessary, and do whatever is required to continue the cover up.

Source:  Richard Cook, NASA Mars Project Manager, at Polar Lander press conference on 12-5-99

"What we were actually looking at [tonight was, strictly speaking], a sort of a double failure case in that it [required both that we'd be in safe] mode and the gyro-compassing, the- the pointing aspect of the medium gain not work."

    Me keep secrets so be honest  // yes and they'd do it to 'em darker     secrets.ra

Comments:  I think Cook wants to be as honest as possible within the limitations imposed on him by the requirement that he not reveal classified information.



Source:  Richard Cook, NASA Mars Project Manager, at Polar Lander press conference on 12-7-99

"Whenever we're doing this business, um, you have to risk something [to get something]."

    Yeah, must fake it.             mustfake.ra



Source:  Richard Cook, NASA Mars Project Manager, at Polar Lander press conference on 12-7-99

"Everybody has really pitched in and has done a very good job maintaining uh, [you know, a perspective about what we're trying to do] here, [doing whatever it takes to make the], to try to make the mission a success."

    Didn't he ask her "Well, why were the caps are pointy?"  //  the gambit siesta right on node
                                                                                         siesta.ra

Comment:  The gambit siesta  may refer to intentionally having the Polar Lander not communicate when the public has been told to expect communication with it.  Another possibility would be to keep the chimp in a state of sleep until her services were needed.  The pointy caps are an enigma.



Source:  Richard Cook, NASA Mars Project Manager, at Polar Lander press conference on 12-7-99

"[They're certainly disappointed], uh, knowing that the [kind of caliber of people that are in]volved.

    Then the opposite, you'll nurse it  // murder will be verbal acting now       murder.ra

Comment:  Cook was commenting on the morale of the NASA Mars team and went on to say that its personnel were determined to recover from the loss and that they expected success in the future.  I suspect that certain members of the team, on a need to know basis, have full knowledge of both the public scientific mission and the classified military mission.  Other team members would only be aware of the public scientific mission.  The first reversal appears to be internal dialog with Cook telling himself that he will encourage team members (nurse it) until their optimism returns (the opposite).  Murder may be the supposed loss of the mission.  However, since the secret military aspects of these missions appear to have met with success, discussion of the loss of mission would be verbal acting.



Source:  Richard Cook, NASA Mars Project Manager, at Polar Lander press conference on 12-5-99

"... [the sense of the team is] that the probability of success will be, will diminish significantly after tomorrow night."

    With the means to dismiss it           dismiss.ra

Comment:  If NASA wants the public to write off the mission as a loss after another night while the military aspects of the mission continue in secret, it now has the means to dismiss the mission:  "Sorry, folks, our final realistic attempt at communication last night failed."


Miscellaneous reversals

Source:  Employee checking in as heard through Mars Polar Lander Mission Control on 12-5-99

"[Yeah, copy that Ace, uh, I'm with ya], I'll be, uh, [standing by fer, uh, ya to initiate the tune]."

    You must see they're fu*king it  //  It's the vicinity, er, five minutes vicinity.ra

Comment:  Ace is the designation for Lockheed Martin Astronautics at Denver, Colorado.  Mission control had announced that the Mars Polar Lander had been given commands to search the Martian sky in an attempt to locate Earth and thus know where to aim its antenna for communication.  The spacecraft was searching the last two cells on its monitor screen for the Earth.  Searching these last two cells was supposed to take five more minutes.  This explains the second reversal.  I interpret the first reversal as showing the employee felt that Lockheed Martin must have known that this was just an exercise, going through the motions in order to convince the public that the mission had failed.



Source:  Mars Polar Lander Mission Control on 12-5-99

"Those commands will be sent to the spacecraft through the low gain antenna or omni-directional antenna (pause) ... since clearly if the medium gain antenna can't talk to us, [we can't speak to it]."

    Those ships thank you.       thank.ra



Source:  Conversation carried over Mars Polar Lander Mission Control on 12-5-99

"[Station calling mark, please repeat]."

    He lose it, found ya lock on the ship.       found.ra

Comment:  This man's voice sounds Australian to me so he may have been checking in from Canberra.  Although NASA claims it was not able to locate the Mars Polar Lander, this sounds like someone had located it.



Source:  Dan McCleese, NASA Mars Program Manager, at Polar Lander press conference on 12-7-99

"And, [we had it to do over again, of course we wouldn't let] it go this way."

    How do you surf an eight year voyage to value?    voyage.ra

Comment:  McCleese, in his forward speech, is saying that hindsight is always 20/20.  NASA would not repeat its mistakes if it could re-do missions that were not successful.  His reverse speech is metaphorical and could be re-stated as:  It is tough to bring an eight year project to fruition.



Source:  Richard Cook, NASA Mars Project Manager, at Polar Lander press conference on 12-7-99

"Again, [learning from] failures, learning from successes, they're going to get something out of it either way."

    From a funeral       funeral.ra

Comment:  Unfortunately, NASA has literally learned through funerals over the years.  The Challenger explosion killed a handful of astronauts.  Years earlier, there was a fatal fire in a manned spacecraft awaiting launch at Cape Canaveral/Kennedy Space Center.



Source:  Sarah Gavit, NASA team member at Polar Lander press conference on 12-7-99

"I think just by getting the probes to the launch [pad, we accomplished a l]ot and already other missions are using our technologies, [which was the purpose of the Deep Space Two  project to begin with]."

    Look she'll mock you bad  //  how naked, the dark blue ships meet and then subvert the social
                                           subvert.ra

Comment:  There were two Deep Space Two probes that were to be released to fall to the surface of Mars along with Mars Polar Lander.  I don't know what color the probes were.  This second reversal is an enigma.  With the first reversal, Gavit expects to be mocked for her claim of having accomplished a lot on a mission that has been portrayed as a failure.



Source:  Chris Jones, NASA team member at Polar Lander press conference on 12-7-99

"In some way it'[s, uh, affected by the availability of the people], um, be[cause they're gonna want to do that, right away, and so] uh, I, I, don't wanna speculate on the make-up of that board."

    We'll beat but we don't believe it, be now the death of us  //  worsen it, yeah, whatever.  I really do not wanna get sick.                  worsen.ra

Comment:  Chris Jones was commenting on the composition of an investigative board which would examine the failed Polar Lander mission.  I think Jones is worried about any findings of fault against the team (get sick) since this could possible result in a cut off of future funding from Congress for the Mars program (be now the death of us).  Although his team does not believe it now, Jones thinks they will beat any findings of fault.


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Copyright 1999,2000
by Mark Commerford