"The Department has no desire to force the adoption of the provisions of this act upon any band of Indians, but it considers that it will be in the interests of such as are capable of intelligently conforming to the provisions thereof..........

"The object of the Department is to endeavour to promote their advancement in civilization and intelligence with a view to eventually attaining to an equality in those respects with the white portion of the population."

This Act, which was to apparently make Indians almost as intelligent as white people, specified complicated laws providing for nominating meetings, seconding of nominations, posted notification of election meetings, etc. The Department seemed to like the idea, and promoted it vigorously.

Oblivious to all of these goings-on in Ottawa, the people of Akwesasne continued their usual existence. The community life went on quite normally.

"The Indians in my agency for the last year have had a fair average crop, and in general are prospering well. Last Winter was a busy time with them in furnishing the demands called for in their line of basket-making. They had ready sales for all they could make. The total Indian population is 1190. As usual, the Grand Procession was held here on Sunday, the 8th of May last. They had a fine day and a large gathering. At one time there was moored at the wharf four steamers."

So read the report of St. Regis' Indian Agent, George Long. Nearby, at another Mohawk reserve, the agent was already skillfully involving himself in the teaching of democracy to his wards. But what happened if the Indians elected the "wrong people"? As usual, the Department had the answer. This exchange of letters took place between the Agent and the Secretary for Indian Affairs:

"I am informed that Archibald Culbertson intends to offer himself as a candidate for re-election. Will you kindly advise me whether I shall record his name as a candidate, for a number of the band are opposed to his re-election?"

(Reply:)".....There would appear to be nothing in the law to prevent Culbertson from offering himself as a candidate, but the Department would, of course, reserve to itself the right to allow or disallow his election should he succeed in obtaining the largest number of votes...."

The regulations specified the Agent was to be in charge of the elections as returning officer, and he recorded who voted for whom on a permanent record, person by person.

It was probably disillusioning to the Department that the people of this Mohawk community, Tyendinaga, wanted to go back to their own system of selecting chiefs. In a petition dated October 29, 1888, to the Governor-General of Canada, the people clearly stated their idea of how they wished their democracy to operate.

"Brother! As we understand that the majority must rule, and a very large majority of the Bay of Quinte Six Nations Mohawks have on the 13th day of October, 1887, renewed their Council Fire according to their rites, and decided to do away with council men entirely, and have hereditary chiefs take their places. Our brethren, the Six Nations Chiefs on the 15th of the same month, and also on the 13th day of September, 1888, and by a large majority, approved of the system of having hereditary chiefs instead of council men. We therefore do not want our Council Fire extinguished because it was the custom and manner of our forefathers......

"We lay before your Excellency of our main object to do away with the way of electing council committee because they are working contrary to the welfare of the Bay of Quinte Six Nations, that we have entirely lost confidence in them, and that there is division among themselves which they have unseated one without the consent of the people. And moreover, the intoxicant liquors is used every election day......"

Because they did not receive a favourable reply, the people again wrote out a petition, this time reminding the Governor-General of the obligations which the British Crown had assumed in the past. It recalled promises the British made to "remain in its own vessel, and the Indian in his birch bark canoe", and that the "British will never make any compulsory laws for the Six Nations and the treaties between them shall remain unmolested forever." It reminded him of the Royal Proclamation of 1763, in which the Indian land would be secured to them free of molestation. And lastly, it reminded them of the solemn promise of peace and friendship:

"We will remind you of the Covenant Chain of Peace and Friendship between the English people and the Six Nations. When our forefathers first made the Covenant Chain with the English, both parties engaged to keep the ends of it fast in their hands: that they would take care to keep it from breaking, or from getting any rust or filth upon it. That they would be as one flesh and blood so that if any enemies should intend to hurt or strike one party, the other should immediately give notice, rise up and help him, that a good road should always be kept open between them.

"We the old people (are sorely grieved) of receiving such a document from the Privy Council stating that our wishes cannot be complied with.....It fills us with great concern. Neither can we visualize any account for it, having always lived in the strictest friendship with the British Government and our forefathers faithfully served and assisted them in all their wars back against the French, and in the Revolutionary War. We therefore cannot but think extremely hard to be deprived from our liberties, rights, and privileges, and also to be deprived from our rational freedom and to suffer such treatment, in return to pass laws to encroach our systematic constitution and also to our treaty rights in which our forefathers in their great wisdom thought proper to enter into an alliance with the English. And also the treaties were sealed in blood of our forefathers to benefit and to promote their children's children's welfare. It is necessary in order for the preservation of our liberties and rights, privileges and customs.

"Brother! At the time of the formation of the treaties to be perpetuated, the Six Nations Indians were found and looked upon as a people, and had a systematic constitution. Therefore, they were enabled to form these very important and sound treaties with the English nation....It was understood by both parties in their treaties that each should maintain their own constitutions, but in the present instance, it appears that the Silver Chain is now tarnished upon these points.....

"The Canadian Government which does not recognize us fully looks upon the Six Nations as minors and treats them as such.

"Brother! We quote the words of Lord Dufferin, one of your predecessors, saying the people of Canada and the people of Britain will not cease to recognize these obligations.....Never shall the word of Britain, once pledged, be broken.......

"Brother! We now beg to assure you that our feelings of loyalty to the British Crown are as deep, as sincere, and as true at this day as they were in the days of our forefathers of old......

"We will give you the statement made by Agent Hill on the 10th of November, saying that the Government are getting tired of us Indians, and they'd rather get rid of us, and also stated that we Indians will be paying taxes soon enough....

"..... We are your most obedient, and most humble and devoted friends."

The Superintendent-General of Indian Affairs, to whom the petition was automatically referred, was not impressed by the arguments raised, and simply wrote the Privy Council his recommendation, which the Council fully accepted:

"It would be inexpedient to make the proposed change, and Your Excellency is therefore unable to acceed to their request, and that it is considered unnecessary to prolong the correspondence."

Again, but this time by delegation, the Bay of Quinte people approached the Governor-General in 1889, asking him:

"What is your power and authority to rule our people?"

"Rotiyaner (the chiefs) have at all times the power to legislate, oversee, and supervise all matters of business, interest, advantages, and general welfare of the people, when said Rotiyaner represents always to abide with the pledge of keeping the War Club and war material of every description buried in oblivion, by always propagating the policy of peace, justice, between their allied nations of Indians and between man and man. Also to be a moralist or spiritual advisor."

The petition was signed by the men who had been selected by the clanmothers to perform the peaceful duties just listed.

Still not recognized by the Canadian Government, the people again by petition lamented the deepening breach in the relationship between them and the Canadian Government. In a lengthy petition to Lord Stanley of Preston, Governor-General, they reminded him of the friendship they had given to his people, and pleaded that now that their position was reversed, that they would be treated equally as well:

"Brother! We remember still that when our forefathers first met with you, when you came with your ship, and our forefathers kindly received you and entertained you and entered into an alliance with you. Though our forfathers were then great and numerous, and your people were inconsiderable and weak, and they knew that, they entered into a Covenant Chain with you and fastened your ship therewith, being apprehensive the bark would break away and your ship be lost.....

"Brother! We are inconsiderable and weak, and you are now a great and numerous people, and you know that we are entered into a Covenant Chain of Brotherly Love, and therefore we also like to be entertained and recognize our request concerning our just rights from the Government.

"Brother!...It is now 225 years since our forefathers and others have signed an agreement. As Captain Joseph Brant long afterwards said in one of his speeches that the Mohawks were determined to sink or swim with the English. But Sir, we are sinking fast because our treaty right is neglected."

At Caughnawaga (Kahnawake), at Oka (Kanehsatake), and at St. Regis (Akwesasne), people were feeling much the same. In December, 1890, for example, the Caughnawaga people wrote the Government of their intention to remain with their traditional form of government:

"....Since every nation throughout the world retains their own customs, rites, and ceremonies, and according to the British Constitution, it gives them full privileges and entire power to create Kings, Queens, and Lords and Peers as hereditaries.......

"Brother! We cannot account that why we cannot adhere according to our customs, rights, and ceremonies, since it will give no hindrance to advance civilization."

And at St. Regis, the people signed their names and marks on this petition:

"The Indian Act only breeds sorrow, contention, hatred, disrespect of family ties, spite against one another, and absence of unity among us Indians. It also creates two distinct parties at the elections. This law was never authorized in its adaptation among Indians.....There is only one way to recover brotherly feelings, that of substituting the seven lords appointed by each of the seven totems according to the ancient customs which we know gave us peace, prosperity, friendship, and brotherly feelings in every cause, either for personal good, or for the benefit of the entire band."

Over a thousand Iroquois from Oka and Caughnawaga and St. Regis met to sign the petition quoted above. They were calling for a reuniting of the Confederacy, now struggling for life against religious, political, geographic differences.

Because of the hubbub of the mass meetings and the petitions which were inundating the Governor-General, the Honourable T. Mayne Daly, Superintendent-General of Indian Affairs, and his deputy, went to Caughnawaga for a public meeting.

The official minutes of the meetings were written by an assistant who paraphrased the many emotional appeals in Mr. Daly's speech:

"What would their Ontario brothers say when they hear that the Caughnawagas wish to go back to the old condition, and what would the white people think? They had to consider their children's children, in connection with the question.

"No matter what might be the views of different members of the band, the responsibility of the decision would be upon him. If the decision resulted in the Indians going backward instead of forward it was he that would be held responsible. He had to consider and decide the question solely with a view to their best interest. If he went back and told his colleagues in the Government that the Indians of Caughnawaga, St. Regis, and Oka, the most advanced and intelligent Indians in Canada, wanted to go back to the old system, he would have great difficulty in convincing them that such was really the desire of the Indians.

"Apart from the question which they had met to discuss, the Minister said he had a few words of advice to offer. He then reminded them of the great market which they had at the very door in the City of Montreal, and he pointed out to them that if they would work the valuable land of the reserve in raising vegetables and butter and food for that market, they would in a very few years be as well off as any farmers in the country.

"He then dealt upon the evils from agitation, telling them that among the Indians, as among white men, the man who talks the most did the least, and in the end was the worse off. Of the 400 or more present, only about ten spoke. When those who had said nothing, contenting themselves with listening, thought the matter over at their firesides, they would conclude, Mr. Daly thought, that when the Government applied the Advancement Act to them, it was done in their best interest. He added that it would take a great deal to lead them to revoke its application.

"If we do not meet your wishes, said Mr. Daly, you must not think hardly of us, for we look upon every question solely from the standpoint of your interests, and the experience gained in the government of all the Indians of the Dominion is used in dealing with your affairs."

A year later, there was a new Minister of Indian Affairs, and the women of Caughnawaga decided to try again. They wrote to the Honourable Clifford Sifton:

"...We are simply women, but it is in the confidence of our noble and gracious mother, the Queen of England, who, being a woman, and recalling to mind that your mother was also a woman. Think it is she now that begs and humbles before your feet. Kindly hear our words of petition, and do not despise the words and voice of a woman.

"Listen to us as it were the voice of your kind and loving mother..... Since the change of our chiefs, into councillors, our sorrows manifolded, we have lost many advantages, it has caused many family disputes, brother against brother. It has separated them, and it has caused an ill feeling which is yet burning."

To this eloquent plea, Duncan G. Scott, who was to become the Deputy Superintendent-General, wrote back simply,

"I regret that the petition of the Women of Caughnawaga cannot be entertained.

"No attention can be given to any further representations in that regard which may be made by them or any persons on their behalf."

So that was the general background. Now we look more closely at Akwesasne (St. Regis) to see just how that was to work. The year is 1898. It was to have been an election year under the Indian Act. But the election didn't happen. This is what took place.

The Clan Mothers of St. Regis took up what was to be their last petition before swinging into action. On June 2nd, 1898, they wrote the Governor-General:

"We have considered the elective system as not being intended for us Indians, and we would therefore return to our old method of selecting our life chiefs, according to our Constitution Iroquois Government. As Your Excellency must know, the ancient custom of creating the chiefs is that they are selected according to the different clans, there being three from each clan, and also three women who select her special chief from among her clan. Of these chiefs, one is considered the head chief, the second is 'the big man' and the third is the 'crier'. As there is four distinct clans, there is twelve life chiefs who hold their offices for life.

"But if any misdemeanor shall offend their clans, these women first hold council with the women of their own clan, and if they find his offence of sufficient strength to warrant his resignation, these women will call upon the men members of their clan, and they meet and select another member to represent them. They then turn the newly selected member to the twelve life chiefs for their confirmation and ratification.

"The women councillors each watches over her special charge and informs them of the rules of their chieftainship. First that he shall never touch spiritous liquors. Second, never to be guilty of theft from the band, of only twenty-five cents. Third, that he shall not commit adultery. This is according to the old time laws and customs that only fit proper members can hold offices."

The Department of Indian Affairs took little notice, but the women went ahead with their meeting, and appointed and confirmed their chiefs, and set up their own government just the same. They told Ottawa what they had done. Predictably, the Department of Indian Affairs responded with a bristle. The Secretary wrote the local agent, George Long:

"The Department is determined not to allow any of the Indians to set its authority at defiance."

The war was on.

Twice the Department called an election. Twice the people forcibly prevented the election from being held. Inspector McCrea was sent down from Ottawa to hold a meeting, and he reported back directly to the Superintendent-General:

"They were informed in the most explicit terms that even if a return to what they consider their ancient system were allowed, of which no hope whatsoever could be held out, the relations of the Indians to the law would not be changed in any particular.

"They might as well look for the falling of the sky as to expect recognition of their claim to hold the position of a practically independent state."

He got action from the Superintendent-General who exercised unusual executive authority:

".....the St. Regis Indians be informed through the agent that after careful consideration, l have decided that no return to another system of constituting chiefs than that provided by the Indian Act shall be permitted......the Indians be informed that no further representations will lead in any way to the modification of this decision.....that the Indians be informed that the agitation carried on by those members of the band who claim exception from the operation of the law has prevented the distribution of the interest money....that the Indians be informed that as soon as they show their willingness to abide by the law and elect a council under the Indian Act, the interest money will be paid....that the Indians be informed that until a council is elected under the Act, the Department will administer as far as it may the affairs of the band."

Two months later, the Department of Indian Affairs again tried to hold an election. They didn't, though, and the story of what happened came out in the March 28, 1899 edition of the MONTREAL STAR in large headlines:

INDIANS REVOLT AT ST. REGIS